Katy Montgomery - Solid foundations supporting gamification

The text Gamification sitting on three boxes with the text Behaviorism, Social Cognitive Theory, and Knowles' Andragogy.

The solid foundations supporting gamification

Katy Montgomery

Consider the following two examples. What do they have in common?

Students in an instructor-led language classroom work in small groups to cast wagers on whether statements or grammatical or ungrammatical. They are given fake money if they are right, and it is taken away from them when their wrong.
Learners in a corporate training program learn about protecting data from security breaches through e-learning. They are on a quest to defeat a dragon. Each correct response helps them towards this goal. Though questions get increasingly difficult, magical guides appear to offer advice as needed.

Both of these are examples of gamification, or game-based learning. Gamification is not just child’s play. It offers many benefits for adult learners as well. University students, for example, love gamified learning activities. It’s also a hot trend in corporate training. With all this popularity, what are the broader theories about learning that support gamification? And, how can we apply tenets of those approaches to maximize the learning potential in game-based learning?

Behaviorism

Rewards

Behaviorism is rooted in reinforcing correct responses to stimuli through feedback or rewards, and it just so happens that reward structures abound in gamified learning. Think of points, badges, leaderboards, extra lives, and progress markers. The dopamine released when earning such a reward encourages learners to repeat the response when encountering the stimulus again in gamified learning (ELM Learning, 2021).

Though positive reinforcement is most valuable, immediate reinforcement in general is effective. Negative consequences in the game—losing some points, for example—can also provide instant feedback (Kapp, 2016). For optimal design, learners should be rewarded for achieving learning objectives rather than on the basis of external factors (Plass et al., 2015). Also, the reward structure should be clear to the learner (ELM Learning, 2021).

It’s interesting to note that learners are more motivated to continue in a game if rewards are given on a variable ratio reinforcement schedule—in other words, the learner can’t predict when the reward is coming (Kapp, 2012). Similarly, rewards that are uncertain in value are more motivating because they carry the additional incentive of resolving uncertainty; this uncertainty can help turn any activity into a game (Shen et al., 2019).

The Law of Exercise

Thorndike’s Law of Exercise explains that each time a learner repeats a stimulus and response pattern, learning is enhanced. Video games or gaming apps naturally provide for this repetition through the standard feature of allowing the learner to restart the game or a level. Additionally, the enjoyable nature of playing a game is likely to assure that the learner will get ample repetition.

The Law of Readiness

Similarly, Thorndike’s Law of Readiness states that the learning is enhanced if the learner is ready and has the right attitude. Well, most agree that games are fun, and generally, learners approach tasks that they consider fun with more readiness.

A character on a laptop with a speech bubble of Watch Me!

Social Cognitive Theory

Modeling

One of the key components of social cognitive theory is modeling. Yes, it’s possible for learning to occur through observation alone! The idea of modeling probably first conjures up the practice of observing a skilled performer in person, but it can extend beyond this. Evidence shows that humans can be socially influenced by electronic avatars as well (Kapp, 2012). Avatars are easily employed in gaming apps, and this type of modeling comes with some extra advantages. Avatar modeling can be ready on standby, easily repeated, and offered in a variety of realistic contexts.

Additionally, when games are played with a group, modeling occurs when learners observe other players. Observers can sometimes learn more than players (deHaan et al., 2010, as cited in Plass et al., 2015).

Even leaderboards can model the hard work required to reach a level of achievement (Plass et al., 2015); this is most effective if they show a leading player’s growth over time (Kapp, 2012).

Reflection

The ability to reflect is also an integral part of the social cognitive approach (Bandura, 2018). Learning games that are played cooperatively allow for interaction. Good gamification design should capitalize on this and prompt learners to share their collective knowledge (Plass et al., 2015). This can provide an opportunity not only to learn from others but to reflect on one’s own understandings. Additionally, some games have online support communities, and this would provide another avenue for learners to reflect.

An electronic game controller, a board game, and a character surrounded by three hearts..

Knowles’ andragogy

Knowles’ andragogy conveys six principles about how adults learn. Three of these principles in particular underscore the effectiveness of gamification, and they can also provide insights into its optimal design.

Intrinsic motivation

One principle asserts that adults are more strongly motivated by intrinsic rather than extrinsic factors. This happens when they are participating in an activity for its own sake—as often happens when playing games. Games intrinsically motivate due to their elements of challenge, curiosity, and fantasy (Dondlinger, 2007, as cited in Plass et al., 2015).

As mentioned earlier, games offer rewards, but these can be designed in a way that promotes intrinsic motivation if they are of little real importance (Kapp, 2014) and if it’s made clear that learning is the ultimate goal. Also of course, for optimal learning, games should be designed so that learners are intrinsically motivated towards the material and not just more general game mechanics (Plass et al., 2015).

Self-directedness

Another principle maintains that adults prefer a self-directed stance towards learning. Gamification can allow learners to proceed at their own pace by incorporating levels (ELM Learning, 2021). In addition, games that allow learners to take risks and then restart encourage them to form their own goals and assess their achievement (Barab et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2009 as cited in Plass et al., 2015). It’s a good idea to consider these approaches as well as other ways to give learners control and allow them to be autonomous when developing game-based learning (Kapp, 2012).

Task-centered orientation

According to another one of Knowles’ principles, adults prefer learning to be contextualized and task centered. Certainly, when playing a game, a learner is not passive. Gamification can further contextualize the learning experience when game environments are developed to mirror the real world (Plass et al., 2015).

Final thoughts

Definitely, gamification is a powerful tactic for engaging learners and developing their knowledge and abilities. When it comes to learning theories supporting gamification, these approaches are just part of the story. Cognitive principles, for example, heavily support the effectiveness of gamification. For more information on concepts related to cognitive learning theory, check out my blog posts Designing learning with memory in mind and Cognitive load and e-learning.

References

Bandura, A. (2018). Towards a psychology of human agency: pathways and reflections. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(2), 130-136. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617699280

ELM Learning. (2021, January 29). eLearning gamification: How to implement gamification in your learning strategy. ELM. https://elmlearning.com/gamification

Kapp, K. (2016, September 22). Gamification is about engagement. Learnnovators. https://learnnovators.com/blog/gamification-is-about-engagement/

Kapp, K. (2014, February 3). Competition & Cooperation in Gamification. Karl M. Kapp. http://karlkapp.com/competition-cooperation-in-gamification/

Kapp, K. (2012). The Gamification of Learning and Instruction: Game-Based Methods and Strategies for Training and Education. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.

Merriam, S. (2006). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.

Plass, J., Homer, B., & Kinzer, C. (2015). Foundations of game-based learning. Educational Psychologist, 50(4), 258–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2015.1122533

Shen, L., Hsee, C., & Talloen, J. (2019). The fun and function of uncertainty: Uncertain incentives reinforce repetition decisions. Journal of Consumer Research, 46(1), 69-81. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucy062

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